A space frame is a network of structural framing members, such as tubes, interconnected at multi-member connection points (commonly called “nodes”) in such a way that the whole structure behaves as one structural element. By contrast, in the typical framing of beams and columns, as in buildings, structural elements often act independently of each other and can have completely separate force paths.
Two broad classes of space frames are recognized in the art. They are single layer grids and double (multiple) layer grids (DLGs). A single layer grid is a network (arranged on a triangular, rectangular or other geometric scheme) of node structures and structural members of desired cross-sections and sizes. A single layer grid achieves its structural strength by locating the grid elements in a curved surface. Thus, single layer grids are most commonly used to define domes, vaults, and other constructions having simple or compound curvature.
Double layer grids, as the name implies, are space frames in which the nodes are located in two separate surfaces which commonly are flat and in parallel spaced relation to each other; vaulted DLGs having curved parallel spaced surfaces also are known. In a double layer grid (DLG), the nodes are interconnected in each surface by straight structural elements called chords; the chords in each surface are arranged in repeating geometric patterns which usually are squares, but triangles and rectangles also can be defined by the chord array in each surface. The squares (or other geometric shapes) defined by the chords in the principal surfaces of a DLG normally are of the same size throughout the structures. The two surfaces of a DLG are interconnected by further straight structural elements which are referred to herein as struts to distinguish them from the chord elements which lie in the principal surfaces of a DLG. The nodes in a top surface of a DLG are located so that the centroid of the area of the square, e.g., they define is located over a node in the bottom surface of the DLG, and struts are connected from each of those top surface nodes to that bottom surface node. As a result, the struts in a DLG which extend between the principal surfaces of the DLG are oblique to the principal surfaces.
Space frames are routinely used as static structures, i.e., structures which are mounted on and supported by fixed supports or foundations. DLG structures which are square or rectangular in overall plan view (i.e., as seen from a vantage point on a line perpendicular to the DLGs principal surfaces) can be supported at the ends of the structure or at the mid-length, e.g., of the structure. However, it is known to use space frames as movable covers over sports arenas and stadiums, in which case the space frame supports are carried on roller or trolley units which are movable along horizontal tracks; space frames used in such situations are fundamentally static structures because the movement of such a space frame does not significantly alter the frame loads due to gravity.
The connections of framing members to nodes in a single layer grid rarely are anything other than rigid connections defined by bolting, riveting or welding of the associated framing members to each other or to other node elements at a node. Such rigid connections of framing members at grid nodes enables the connections to transmit to the nodes, and to other members at the node, moment loads on the framing members; moment loads are loads which act on a framing member in ways which cause the framing member to tend to rotate or pivot relative to the node. In modern double layer grids, on the other hand, the connections of the framing members to the nodes rarely are moment connections; they are connections which either are true pinned connections or are connections which are modeled as pinned connections. In a double layer grid, loads on the overall grid which would tend to produce rotational movements of framing members relative to the nodes are resisted by tensile or compressive forces which act in the framing members along their lengths, i.e., axially of the framing members. The reason for the use of pinned connections in DLGs is the cost and difficulty of assembling such grids having moment connections of the framing members at or to the nodes.
A true pinned connection of a DLG framing member at a node is a simple connection to define and to make. Such a connection typically is made by passing a bolt or a pin through aligned holes in a framing member and in a node connector arrangement to which that framing member and other framing members are pinned. To the extent that strut axes do not intersect the axes of the chords at the node (or the axis of a major chord at the node), the node is said to have eccentricity. Eccentricity at a DLG node causes the node to have moment loads or other undesired loads applied to it. The presence of moment loads at nodes of a DLG requires that at least some of the components of the grid be heavier than if no moment loads were present. Load eccentricity at a DLG node can be caused by imperfections in the alignments of the framing member coupled to the node, and framing member misalignments can be produced by clearances in the pinned connections at the node. Clearances at pinned connections in a DLG also can cause the grid framing members to have effective lengths between nodes which deviate from design lengths, thereby affecting the magnitudes of the actual loads in the framing members as compared to design load magnitudes. The solution to the existence of (or potential for) differences between actual and design framing member loads is to make the framing members heavier.
It is apparent, therefore, that existing structures and techniques for establishing connections of framing members to nodes in DLGs have deficiencies which adversely affect the load carrying capacities of an overall DLG and of the framing members present in it. Needs exist for structures and procedures by which pinned connections at nodes in DLGs can be made with reduced or no eccentricity and with minimal effects of clearances at the pinned connections. Meaningful satisfaction of any or all those needs can result in DLGs which make more efficient use of their framing members and so permit weights of framing members to be reduced, along with other consequent benefits and advantages. The principal factors effecting the cost of a given DLG are primarily the cost of the materials used to define the grid components and secondarily the cost of labor to assemble those components. Material cost is a function of material weight. Labor costs are a function principally of the man-hours needed to assemble a DLG.